Biotechnology for Biofuels

International Year of Sustainable Energy for all

Today is the first day of the World Future Energy summit, marking the start of the UN International Year of Sustainable Energy for all. The theme of the summit is innovation and issues to be discussed by researchers, policy makers and investors will include technology as the enabler for clean energy, how to drive growth, finance and rural development, as well as the political and digital infrastructures needed to support progress.

Bioenergy from biomass is also an important part of the agenda. Headlining at the summit is the announcement from a leading NGO that biomass will upstage other renewable sources (wind and solar) in providing energy to the world's poorest. This prediction was made by the award winning CEO of Aga Khan Planning and Building Services (AKBPS) who implement low energy technologies in Pakistan and India that focus on energy saving, including household level biogas plants to fuel cooking and water heating.

Biogas, formed by the breakdown of biological material to produce methane and hydrogen, is also widely used as a clean transportation fuel and production technology at a commercial level is moving fast. Work published in Biotechnology for Biofuels by Pakarinen et al. looks at the advantages of storing crops as silage to improve breakdown and increase methane yields. The production of biogas from algae is another attractive alternative, requiring low cost inputs of water and sunlight, that is receiving renewed research attention (Lakaniemi et al.). In 2012 and beyond, the freely accessible research published in Biotechnology for Biofuels, can only help to achieve the grand aim of sustainable energy for all. 

Posted by Helen Whitaker at 10:24    Comments (0)

Why grass (and weeds) may be greener

An interesting headline of No-Kill Farming: The rise of low-cost low-carbon biofuels through continuous harvest, took the lead in Biofuels Digest earlier this month. In an essay, Jim Lane reviewed the companies that are taking the first step in creating fuel production systems that do not need arable land, including algae, cyanobacteria and plant cell cultures.

Back on dry land, continuous harvesting and minimizing inputs are also key to the sustainability of  lignocellulose feedstocks. For example, grasses can be mown and re-grown, with less nutrient requirement than harvesting whole plants, and C₄ grasses also have the advantage (in theory) of a more efficient carbon fixing pathway.

In work just published in Biotechnology for Biofuels, Jaclyn DeMartini and Charles Wyman look at the biofuel potential of a low-input crop of mixed prairie species. A natural prairie crop was harvested and the sugar yield and recalcitrance to digestion were measured in anatomical fractions of the three most abundant species: a C₃ grass (Poa pratensis), a C₄ grass (Schizachyrium scoparium), and a legume (Lupinus perennis). The overall glucose and xylose yields from the mixed plot were good and improvements are proposed by increasing the leaf:stem ratio and subsequent sugar yield of the crop, or by modifying stems to make them less recalcitrant.

Posted by Helen Whitaker at 14:52    Comments (0)

Fruit and nuts for both food and fuel

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Posted by Helen Whitaker at 13:15    Comments (0)

USDA goes cellulosic

It has been a momentous week for biofuels in the United States, starting with the announcement on Tuesday 27 Sept, by Agriculture Secretary Tom Vilsack, that the USDA will pay more than 160 energy producers to support the production of advanced biofuels. Crucially, the funding only supports production from cellulosic and waste feedstocks and will not pay for the production of fuel from corn-starch.

This incentive to industry to embrace a second wave of biofuel technology has been matched by major investment in research. On Wednesday 28th Sept, Tom Vilsack announced funding awards made under the USDA's National Institute of Food and Agriculture (NIFA) programme. More than $136 million will be paid to five next generation fuel projects, over the next five years. One of the largest grants of $40 million was made to the University of Washington to promote biorefining of woody biomass across the supply chain. The same amount was awarded to Washington State University for woody feedstock development. All five projects will support rural regeneration and the use of sustainable cellulosic biomass to produce bioenergy.

The next generation of feedstock and production technologies will need to work to meet the Renewable Fuel Standard target set by the Environmental Protection Agency, under which the United States aim to increase production capacity to 8 billion gallons of cellulosic biofuel by 2019.

Posted by Helen Whitaker at 16:32    Comments (0)

The search for rotten enzymes

Bio-prospecting for naturally occurring enzymes, involved in decay and digestion, is an appealing strategy to find better ways to convert woody and recalcitrant biomass into biofuel. Work just published in Biotechnology for Biofuels, by Luen-Luen Li and colleagues, takes a meta-genomics approach to this search. High-throughput sequencing of microbial decay communities in poplar biomass identified 4,000 glycoside hydrolase (GHase) type enzymes. From a sub-set that were selected for characterization, four novel enzymes were found that have potential biofuels application.

The plummeting cost of genome sampling means that the latter approach is increasingly profitable in terms of technical investment. A more targeted study, on a candidate species level, was reported by King et al. (2011) who assayed the plant cell wall degrading activity of a collection of 256 known plant fungi.

The animal kingdom is not ignored in its ability to host cellulose digestion. Our Associate Editor for Biotechnology for Biofuels, Ed Bayer, leads research into bacterial cellulosomes (multi-enzyme complexes) including those found in the stomach of ruminants (e.g. Alber et al. 2009). The digestive mechanism of termites has also been investigated and an analysis of host and symbiont gene expression in the termite gut, published by Tartar et al. (2009) has been cited an impressive 22 times (source: Scopus).  

Li LL, Taghavi S, McCorkle SM, Zhang YB, Blewitt MG, Brunecky R, Adney WS, Himmel ME, Brumm P, Drinkwater C, Mead DA, Tringe SG, van der Lelie D.(2011) Bioprospecting metagenomics of decaying wood: mining for new glycoside hydrolases. Biotechnol Biofuels.4:23.

King BC, Waxman KD, Nenni NV, Walker LP, Bergstrom GC, Gibson DM. (2011) Arsenal of plant cell wall degrading enzymes reflects host preference among plant pathogenic fungi. Biotechnol Biofuels.16:4.

Alber O, Noach I, Rincon MT, Flint HJ, Shimon LJ, Lamed R, Frolow F, Bayer EA. (2009) Cohesin diversity revealed by the crystal structure of the anchoring cohesin from Ruminococcus flavefaciens. Proteins.77(3):699-709.

Tartar A, Wheeler MM, Zhou X, Coy MR, Boucias DG, Scharf ME. (2009) Parallel metatranscriptome analyses of host and symbiont gene expression in the gut of the termite Reticulitermes flavipes. Biotechnol Biofuels.15:25.

Photo by Althepal (Wikimedia Commons).

Posted by Helen Whitaker at 16:16    Comments (0)

Biotechnology for Biofuels welcomes Debra Mohnen as co-Editor-in-Chief

Biotechnology for Biofuels welcomes Professor Debra Mohnen (University of Georgia) as a new Editor-in-Chief, joining Charles Wyman, Bärbel Hahn-Hägerdal and Mike Himmel at the helm. Debra becomes a successor to Chris Somerville, amongst the four Editors-in-Chief, in leading the way for plant science within the journal and providing complimentary expertise to her co-editors.

Debra’s research focuses on pectin biosynthesis and pectin function in plants and on the improvement of plant cell wall structure to increase the efficiency of conversion of plant wall biomass to biofuels. As a rising star in complex carbohydrate research, Debra received an NIH National Research Service Award before her appointment to a faculty position at the Complex Carbohydrate Research Center at UGA, where she is now Professor of the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology. In addition to her own research, Debra is Activity Lead in Plant Cell Wall Biosynthesis Research and Focus Area Lead in Plant Biomass in the DOE-funded BioEnergy Science Center (BESC). She serves on scientific advisory boards for multiple bioenergy centers.

Our welcome to Debra comes alongside more good news for Biotechnology for Biofuels. The impressive first Impact Factor that we received last year has just increased to 4.15, based upon citations to the journal during 2010. A clear winner in providing open access to biofuels research, the journal also ranks 2nd of 48 journals in the Energy category of the SCImago journal rankings (SJR) and 1st of 79 journals in Management, Monitoring, Policy and Law

Posted by Helen Whitaker at 09:40    Comments (0)

Breaking down walls

Fuel ethanol in the US is most widely used as an E10 gasoline blend (10% ethanol) and the supply chain from existing corn ethanol plants, currently outstrips demand.  This “blend wall” is a disincentive to research and investment in ethanol production.

The State of Iowa gives cause for optimism, following the reported retail triumph of corn-based E85 (85%) blend. Iowa’s Renewable Fuels Association report that in the first quarter of 2011, despite a reduction in retail tax credit for E85, higher oil prices have helped sales to exceed 2.6 million gallons (a 27% increase on the previous year).

It seems that in the US, corn ethanol production is capable of overcoming the blend wall. Meanwhile, Finland have pioneered a more sustainable solution, with plants producing E85 from side streams of food industry waste.  At less cost to the environment, industrial production of ethanol from lignocellulosic biomass remains out of reach to short-term profiteers. The past month's publications in Biotechnology for Biofuels  include diverse studies that crack open the practical barriers presented by the plant cell wall, including treatments of corn stover, wheat straw and willow coppice to increase the yield of fermentable sugars. 

Posted by Helen Whitaker at 18:13    Comments (0)

Political push for green energy

Today sees the announcement of a UK pledge to cut carbon emissions to 50% of 1990 levels by 2025. Prime Minister, David Cameron, over-ruled the economic concerns of the treasury in support of a deal to establish the Coalition government as the furthest-reaching in policy against climate change. The impact of this pledge now relies upon similar aims from other EU countries or an "opt-out" clause may be used to compete economically, to the disadvantage of long-term investors in alternative energy.

An independent Committee on Climate Change recommended UK energy investment in wind, wave and tidal sources. Whilst this may be the best solution for a windswept temperate island, on a global scale, the largest renewable energy contributor is biomass. A recent summary from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change reports a rapid increase in biofuel demand for road transport, from 2% globally in 2008 to nearly 3% in 2009.

Policy remains key to investment in green energy, for as long as its cost remains relatively high in comparison to fossil fuels. However, the pressure to implement policy and compete within the biofuels market has reached a new tipping point. Last week, TMO Renewables announced a technology partnership the China National Offshore Oil Corporation, aiming to manufacture ethanol from cassava with a 180,000 ton plant in Guangxi province. This latest in a series of deals should allow China to soon overtake the US and become the global leader in bioethanol production.

Posted by Helen Whitaker at 17:11    Comments (0)

Boom or Bust for Biofuels Research?

A recent special section of Science is devoted to the discussion of alternative energy and its technical and economic challenges (content requires subscription or payment).

Robert Service [1] reports how investment in ‘cellulosic’ biofuel production in the US, in face of global recession, is dependent upon out-competing current maize ethanol production. A 10% ethanol requirement for petroleum blending is already embedded in the US market, including the car manufacturing industry, and this 10% can already be overproduced from existing maize ethanol factories. This leaves little incentive for US investment in lignocellulosic biofuel research.

Maize crops may not be the best use of finite resources for producing ethanol and with this in mind, Chris Somerville et. al. [2] prospect alternative plant species and new hybrids for fuel production. Factors such as land, light, water and nitrogen efficiency are compared. Whilst grasses and sugar cane are most suitable in temperate climates, agave production is considered viable for arid zones. The feasibilty of C4 plants, including softwoods, is restricted to rainy areas. These higher yields depend upon improved technologies for lignocellulose conversion to ethanol - a breakthrough that is also needed before we can utilise agricultural waste feedstocks. A recent publication in Biotechnology for Biofuels shows that research into new biofuel crops such as switchgrass [3] is alive and kicking. Innovation in genetic and protein engineering for lignocellulose conversion by yeast [4] and other fungi such as Hypocrea jecorina [5] is also gaining momentum.

Nevertheless, the IEA 2050 target (150 EJ/year) for lignocellulosic bioenergy awaits a significant policy and investment framework, as discussed by Tom Richard [6]. His report examines how production and shipping of high volume biomass might be approached and mentions how technological advances in pre-treatment could reduce transport volumes or potentially be carried out in transit (e.g.[7,8]).

Wifjels and Barbosa [9] discuss the potential for algal biofuels and propose that widespread use is only 10 to 15 years away. They explain that, at present, an area the size of Portugal would be needed to supply enough microalgal lipid biodiesel to Europe. Whilst algal biotechnology remains in its’ infancy, a rapid catch-up is achievable in the footsteps of groundbreaking genetic and metabolic engineering research. Whether associated investment in production technology and infrastructure should be predicted within two decades seems less certain.

What is made clear across this overview is that rapid progress requires an integrated approach from government to land use policy and laboratory, farm to refinery and from pump to engine.

1.Service RF (2010) Is There a Road Ahead for Cellulosic Ethanol? Science 329 (5993) 784 – 785. | Publisher Full Text |

2.Somerville C, Youngs H, Taylor C, Davis SC, Long, SP (2010) Feedstocks for Lignocellulosic Biofuels. Science 329 (5993), 790 | Publisher Full Text |

3.Chen X, Equi R, Baxter H, Berk K, Han J, Agarwal S, Zale J (2010) A high-throughput transient gene expression system for switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.) seedlings. Biotechnol Biofuels 3:9 | Publisher Full Text |

4.Garcia Sanchez R, Hahn-Hägerdal B, Gorwa-Grauslund MF (2010) Cross-reactions between engineered xylose and galactose pathways in recombinant Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Biotechnol Biofuels 3:19 | Publisher Full Text |

5.Lantz SE, Goedegebuur F, Hommes R, Kaper T, Kelemen BR, Mitchinson C, Wallace L, Ståhlberg J, Larenas EA (2010) Hypocrea jecorina CEL6A protein engineering. Biotechnol Biofuels 3:20 | Publisher Full Text |

6.Richard TL (2010) Challenges in scaling up biofuels infrastructure. Science 329 (5993):793-6. | Publisher Full Text | 

7.Brown RF, Agbogbo FK, Holtzapple MT (2010) Comparison of mechanistic models in the initial rate enzymatic hydrolysis of AFEX-treated wheat straw. Biotechnol Biofuels 3:6 | Publisher Full Text |

8.Arantes V, Saddler JN (2010) Access to cellulose limits the efficiency of enzymatic hydrolysis: the role of amorphogenesis. Biotechnol Biofuels 3:4 | Publisher Full Text |

9.Wijffels RH, Barbosa MJ (2010) An outlook on microalgal biofuels. Science 329 (5993):796-9 | Publisher Full Text | 

Posted by Helen Whitaker at 12:04    Comments (0)

Optimal engineering for yeast lignocellulose conversion

Evolutionary engineers have created a new strain of Saccharomyces cerevisiae that can ferment ethanol from the agricultural and timber waste feedstock, lignocellulose. Rosa Garcia Sanchez and co-workers accelerated the evolution of the yeast, by applying selection pressure in continuous culture, to arrive at an organism capable of complete conversion of the pentose sugars, xylose and arabinose, to ethanol [1].

The process of directed evolution may not seem to be a striking advance in transgenic technology and it is easy to draw parallels with ancient methods of artificial selection. One of the caveats of evolutionary engineering is that novel beneficial mutations are unlikely to occur [2]. Wild type yeast cannot ferment pentose sugars at all and transgenic parental strains for pentose fermentation were initially created, by inserting the required genes from other fungi (Pichia) and bacteria [3]. However, like many genetically modified organisms, the transgenic yeast strains were not genetically stable or efficient enough to be of the best benefit to industry.  The desirable genetic modification was only accurately achieved by combining modern approaches of transgene insertion with a more classical selection strategy.

Given meta-genomic quantities of novel genetic material [e.g. 4] and our ability to generate astonishingly complex clones [5], it is worth considering the cost of deciphering and manipulating the function of the smallest genetic units, in the face of parsimonious selective processes that have already taken place. By carefully investigating the genetic and metabolic transition that occurs during evolutionary engineering, we also gain new scientific insight into the most efficient ways to build a transgenic organism.

1. Garcia Sanchez, R., Karhumaa, K., Fonseca, C., Sanchez Nogue, V., Almeida, J., Larsson, C., Bengtsson, O., Bettiga, M., Hahn-Hagerdal, B., & Gorwa-Grauslund, M. (2010). Improved xylose and arabinose utilization by an industrial recombinant Saccharomyces cerevisiae strain using evolutionary engineering Biotechnology for Biofuels, 3 (1) DOI: 10.1186/1754-6834-3-13

2. Kwok, R. (2010). Five hard truths for synthetic biology Nature, 463 (7279), 288-290 DOI: 10.1038/463288a

3. Karhumaa K, Wiedemann B, Hahn-Hägerdal B, Boles E, & Gorwa-Grauslund MF (2006). Co-utilization of L-arabinose and D-xylose by laboratory and industrial Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains. Microbial cell factories, 5 PMID: 16606456

4. Sommer, M., Church, G., & Dantas, G. (2010). A functional metagenomic approach for expanding the synthetic biology toolbox for biomass conversion Molecular Systems Biology, 6 DOI: 10.1038/msb.2010.16

5. Gibson, D., Glass, J., Lartigue, C., Noskov, V., Chuang, R., Algire, M., Benders, G., Montague, M., Ma, L., Moodie, M., Merryman, C., Vashee, S., Krishnakumar, R., Assad-Garcia, N., Andrews-Pfannkoch, C., Denisova, E., Young, L., Qi, Z., Segall-Shapiro, T., Calvey, C., Parmar, P., Hutchison, C., Smith, H., & Venter, J. (2010). Creation of a Bacterial Cell Controlled by a Chemically Synthesized Genome Science DOI: 10.1126/science.1190719

Posted by Ciaran O'Neill at 17:32    Comments (0)

Changing patterns of investment in biofuels

The research and development of biofuels is beginning to attract investment from large international companies, including those traditionally associated with their fossil fuel predecessors.

A series of news articles published in Nature evaluate recent shifts in interest and investment in jatropha and algae as biofuel feedstocks, as well as techniques to produce cellulosic ethanol and liquid fuel directly from biomass (content requires subscription or payment).

With the announcement this summer that BP had pulled out of a $160 million joint venture with D1 oils to accelerate the cultivation of Jatropha curcus, the prospect of further large scale investment in the shrub as a biofuel feedstock faded.

Due to its ability to grow on land unsuitable for agriculture, cultivating jatropha was previously touted as a way of avoiding competition for resources with food crops. However, a recent controversial study suggests that jatropha requires much more water than other prospective bioenergy crops.

Despite falling investment in jatropha over the last year, various remaining projects suggest that the crop could still play a role in meeting future sustainable energy needs. Their scope is broad ranging, from genetic research on the development of high yielding seed strains, to initiatives operating on a local scale which incentivise farmers to cultivate jatropha alongside existing crops. A novel method of jatropha oil transesterification for use in biodiesel synthesis was reported in Biotechnology for Biofuels earlier this year.

While interest and investment in Jatropha has waned, algal biofuels have emerged very quickly as perhaps the most promising source of biofuel for the future. The willingness of oil companies to invest was punctuated by the announcement in July that ExxonMobil would join J. Craig Venter’s Synthetic Genomics Inc. in a project (potentially worth $600-million) attempting to up-scale the production of biofuels from algae (see our previous blog post here). BP & Chevron have also invested in Martek Biosciences and NREL respectively.

The potential benefits of algae as a ‘green’ source of energy are several fold; they can be cultured using land and water unsuitable for agriculture, and consume carbon dioxide during photosynthetic growth. Scientific advance in algal biofuel technology is difficult to gauge, however, as private companies withhold their research from peer review and publication. 

In comparison to algae, the uptake from companies expected to be involved in the commercialization of cellulosic ethanol production (the conversion of agricultural residues and municipal waste into useful fuel), has been slow. Fewer investments than initially expected have been secured, due in part to the economic downturn and previous financial losses in maize ethanol.

This has resulted in an increased focus on the reduction of production costs; increasing the efficiency of fungal enzymes used in ethanol production and using engineered microorganisms that convert cellulose directly to ethanol are two approaches currently being explored. Attention has also turned to crops and industrial process by-products not previously considered or grown for use as feedstocks in bioethanol production. Research published in Biotechnology for Biofuels looks at spent grain from the brewing process, and blemished watermelons discarded from the annual crop.

In time, fuels derived from biomass which replicate the hydrocarbon fuels in use today might prove more attractive to investors than bioethanol. The technology to convert biomass to liquid fuel in this way is in its infancy, however the benefits of the approach include the generation of fuel products that would be tailored for the existing petrol-focused infrastructure. In 2008, Virunt and investor Royal Dutch Shell announced plans to develop technology for converting plant sugars into hydrocarbons similar to those produced at petroleum refineries, and other companies including Chevron and Volkswagen have also invested in projects to develop biomass to liquid fuel technology.

Biotechnology for Biofuels welcomes high-quality studies describing technological and operational advances in the above production techniques, as well as others covered by the journal scope.

You can browse or search published articles, or submit your manuscript for consideration, online.

Gerbens-Leenes, W., Hoekstra, A., & van der Meer, T. (2009). The water footprint of bioenergy Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106 (25), 10219-10223 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0812619106

Kumari, A., Mahapatra, P., Garlapati, V., & Banerjee, R. (2009). Enzymatic transesterification of Jatropha oil Biotechnology for Biofuels, 2 (1) DOI: 10.1186/1754-6834-2-1

Xiros, C., & Christakopoulos, P. (2009). Enhanced ethanol production from brewer's spent grain by a Fusarium oxysporum consolidated system Biotechnology for Biofuels, 2 (4) DOI: 10.1186/1754-6834-2-4

Fish, W., Bruton, B., & Russo, V. (2009). Watermelon juice: a promising feedstock supplement, diluent, and nitrogen supplement for ethanol biofuel production Biotechnology for Biofuels, 2 (18) DOI: 10.1186/1754-6834-2-18

Posted by Ciaran O'Neill at 11:59    Comments (0)

Investing in algal biofuels

ExxonMobil and Synthetic Genomics Inc. (SGI, a biotechnology company) have announced a research partnership with the aim of developing biofuels from algae.

In a statement from SGI, the company founder J Craig Venter described the long-term objective of the alliance to explore “the most efficient and cost effective ways to produce next generation biofuels using photosynthetic algae”. These biofuels would be economically viable, and compatible with gasoline and diesel fuels currently in use.

This interest in algal biofuels from the oil and gas company comes in response to a number of potential benefits, and represents a significant investment. Growing algae consume carbon dioxide, and as such could serve as a carbon sink and assist the reduction of net emissions from the fuel industry. A shift to algal biofuels could also negate potential land use conflict between food and fuel crops, as algae can be cultured using land and water unsuitable for agriculture.

The deal is potentially worth $300 million for the La Jolla based genomics company, if they meet a number of research and development milestones, while a further $300 million is invested into ExxonMobil Research and Engineering Company (EMRE).

SGI will focus on finding and enhancing strains of algae to efficiently yield lipids and long-chain hydrocarbons, while EMRE will work with the bio-oils produced to develop finished biofuel products. Together, the companies aim to identify and develop large-scale production systems suited to producing algal biofuels on an industrial scale.

SGI speculate that algae could yield more fuel than crop plant sources currently in use; as much as 2,000 gallons of fuel per acre per year, whereas corn yields approximately 250.

Posted by Ciaran O'Neill at 17:03    Comments (0)

Biofuel and land use

In “Squaring biofuels with food”, a forum discussion published in the latest edition of Issues in Science and Technology, leading biofuel researchers discuss the complex and controversial issue of the land use change associated with increased biofuel production. The forum is in response to an earlier article by Keith Kline and colleagues published in the same journal. 

The contributors to the forum focus on the need to develop a strategic, long-term and global perspective that takes into account increased biofuel production as part of a wider picture.  They suggest that a balanced review of existing literature contradicts recent claims that biofuel-associated changes in land use would result in rising food prices, deforestation, biodiversity loss and the release of terrestrial carbon as CO₂. 

In an open letter to the forum, the Global Sustainable Bioenergy Project outline their objectives in addressing the challenge faced; producing food and biofuels in sufficient amounts, whilst meeting social and environmental needs. They, along with the other forum contributors, highlight the social importance of advancing current methodology, technology and modelling techniques used in biofuel production.

To keep up to date with the latest publications in Biotechnology for Biofuels, sign up for article alerts or follow our RSS feed. If you are interested in writing an occasional piece for our blog, on these or other biofuel-related topics, please contact editorial@biotechnologyforbiofuels.com.

Posted by Ciaran O'Neill at 15:27    Comments (0)

Lignocellulosic plants of possible use for biofuel production

A recent review article [Simmons BA, Loque D, Blanch HW: Next-generation biomass feedstocks for biofuel production. Genome Biol 2008, 9:242] published in Genome Biology highlights the use of lignocellulosic biomass to produce second generation biofuels. Simmons, Loque and Blanch describe how hybrid poplar, eucalyptus, loblolly pine, willow and silver maple could be grown throughout the United States on idle farm land with no changes to farm practices. They estimate that 247 billion liters of biofuels per year could be produced in this way.

In the article they also focus on the biological advances being made into producing dedicated energy crops with enhanced characteristics. Lignocellulosic plants are notoriously difficult to convert into fermentable sugars due to the presence of lignin in cell walls. However, research into microbes that can remove lignin from crops, and the modification of lignin biosynthesis within the plants themselves, suggest that this recalcitrance to conversion could be diminished. Research into crops engineered to 'reach high energy densities over a short time with minimal fertilization and water consumptions', or break down cellulose to glucose, are also discussed in the review.

The article is significant at a time when governments around the world are looking for ways to decrease their dependence on fossil fuels and increase their biofuel production because of concerns over the impact fossil fuel have on global warming, as well as wanting to decrease their dependence on imported fuels.

Andrea Melendez, Assistant Journal Development Editor

Posted by Matthew Cockerill at 18:38    Comments (0)

The potential of algae as biofuel feedstock

Making biofuels from algae is an alluring idea, but the economic and technical feasibility is far from certain...

Posted by Sam Cockerill at 10:51    Comments (0)